Lymphatics and Nerves of Abdominopelvic Region

Function of the GI system is highly regulated through neural and hormonal signaling. Much of this regulation comes from the ANS. Parasympathetic stimulation is excitatory, triggering digestive secretions, an increase in GI blood flow, and movement of material through the tract, while sympathetic stimulation is inhibitory and has the opposite effects. The GI tract also has its own enteric nervous system, which controls numerous local GI reflexes. For example, the presence of a particular nutrient may be detected by chemoreceptors and may trigger release of a particular digestive enzyme, which is coordinated entirely by the enteric nervous system (without input from the brain). In addition, there are numerous hormones and paracrine signaling molecules released by GI organs that similarly affect GI function.

The pelvis consists of the bony pelvic girdle, the muscular and ligamentous pelvic floor, and the pelvic cavity, which contains viscera, vessels, and multiple nerves and muscles. The pelvic girdle, composed of 2 “hip” bones and the sacrum, is a ring-like bony structure of the axial skeleton that links the vertebral column with the lower extremities. The pelvic ring joints include the pubic symphysis anteriorly and the sacroiliac joints posteriorly. The hip bones are made up of 3 fused bones: the pubis, ischium, and ilium. The pelvic cavity houses various GI, urinary, and reproductive structures, which are supported by the muscles and connective tissue of the pelvic floor. The female pelvis, making accommodations for childbirth, is generally wider and larger than the male pelvis.

Pain has accompanied humans since they first existed, first lamented as the curse of existence and later understood as an adaptive mechanism that ensures survival. Pain is the most common symptomatic complaint and the main reason why people seek medical care. Pain symptoms are seen every day, by every physician, in every clinic and hospital in the world. Understanding pain physiology is the cornerstone to understanding how to treat it and to providing the individual with their first sigh of relief as definitive management is undertaken.

The ANS is a component of the peripheral nervous system that uses both afferent (sensory) and efferent (effector) neurons, which control the functioning of the internal organs and involuntary processes via connections with the CNS. The ANS consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The efferent nerve fibers that terminate in the endocrine, vascular, and visceral structures coordinate the inner workings of the body in response to several afferent inputs. The sympathetic and parasympathetic neural circuits coordinate stress responses and relaxation responses, respectively. The enteric nervous system regulates visceral organ function. A balance between these systems results in homeostasis, whereas an imbalance leads to pathological conditions.

The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal incontinence can occur if this function is disturbed. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Peristaltic waves within the rectal muscularis, involuntary relaxation of the internal anal sphincter (controlled by the ANS), and voluntary relaxation of the external anal sphincter (controlled by the cerebral cortex) are essential for defecation to occur. The rich plexus of veins surrounding the anal canal can develop into hemorrhoids if dilated.

Pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Pain is a subjective experience. Acute pain lasts < 3 months and typically has a specific, identifiable cause. Chronic pain lasts > 3 months and may exist in the absence of tissue damage or after healing would have been expected to occur. Pain management involves a combination of addressing underlying causes and using a systematic approach tailored to the clinical scenario.

Male sexual dysfunction is any disorder that interferes with the male sexual response cycle and includes desire disorders, erectile disorders, and ejaculatory disorders. Sexual dysfunction has a varied etiology and may be due to psychological causes, endocrine diseases, neurogenic dysfunction, chronic medical illness, or medication/substance abuse. These disorders often cause significant distress to the patient and sexual partner. Treatment options include psychotherapy, physical therapy, and pharmacotherapy based on the causes of dysfunction.

The lymphatic system consists of the lymphoid organs containing the cells of the immune system and the lymphatic vessels, which transport interstitial fluid (as lymph) back to the venous circulation. Lymphatic vessels are spread extensively throughout the body, draining and filtering lymph, facilitating homeostasis, and aiding in defense against circulating pathogens. Fluid flow is unidirectional, enabled by valves in the collecting lymphatic vessels. In vessels without valves, the muscle contraction of organs and adjacent blood vessels help in the fluid movement. To return to the venous circulation, the lymph is collected by the major lymphatic ducts: right lymphatic duct (collects from the right side of the head and neck, the right side of the thorax, and the right upper extremity) and the thoracic duct (collects from the rest of the body). Pathologic conditions involving the lymphatic system are associated with infections, lymphatic damage, or injury and malignancies.

The stomach is a muscular sac in the upper left portion of the abdomen that plays a critical role in digestion. The stomach develops from the foregut and connects the esophagus with the duodenum. Structurally, the stomach is C-shaped and forms a greater and lesser curvature and is divided grossly into regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. On a microscopic level, the stomach wall has several layers, including a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The stomach is filled with glands that secrete a variety of substances involved in the digestive process. The arterial supply to the stomach is primarily from vessels originating from the celiac trunk.

The small intestine is the longest part of the GI tract, extending from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileocecal junction. The small intestine is the major organ responsible for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. The small intestine is divided into 3 segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Like the entire GI tract, the walls of the small intestine have several layers: an inner absorptive mucosal layer (which is made up of an epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa) and submucosal, muscular, and serosal layers. The arterial supply to the small intestine is via branches of the superior mesenteric artery, and veins drain into the hepatic portal system. The small intestine is innervated by the ANS.

The large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. The colon also contains many mucus-secreting glands to lubricate the stool passing through it. The colon receives its blood supply from colic branches of the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries, which form an important anastomosis along the transverse colon. The colon is regulated by the ANS and receives both sympathetic (inhibitory) and parasympathetic (stimulatory) input.