Parathyroid Hyperfunction – Top USMLE Diseases

Hypercalcemia (serum calcium > 10.5 mg/dL) can result from various conditions, the majority of which are due to hyperparathyroidism and malignancy. Other causes include disorders leading to vitamin D elevation, granulomatous diseases, and the use of certain pharmacological agents. Calcium levels are regulated and affected by factors such as dietary intake and pH, and the levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and albumin. Symptoms vary depending on calcium levels and the onset of hypercalcemia. Generally, neuropsychiatric (confusion, altered mental status), GI (vomiting, abdominal pain), musculoskeletal (bone pain, weakness), and renal (polyuria, polydipsia) manifestations are seen. Confirmation of hypercalcemia is required. Correction of the value is based on the albumin levels or after determining the ionized calcium levels (the metabolically active form), which is followed by determining PTH levels. Subsequent laboratory tests and imaging studies are ordered based on history and presentation. Correction of hypercalcemia depends on its severity. Calcium levels > 14 mg/dL are treated using IV isotonic saline hydration, calcitonin, and bisphosphonates. Hemodialysis is considered in rare cases. Treatment of the underlying cause is recommended.

Hyperparathyroidism is a condition associated with elevated blood levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Depending on the pathogenesis of this condition, hyperparathyroidism can be defined as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary hyperparathyroidism is an inherent disease of parathyroid glands associated with abnormal secretion of PTH. Secondary hyperparathyroidism results from abnormalities of calcium metabolism, which, if left untreated, can progress to tertiary hyperparathyroidism, which is associated with hypertrophy of the parathyroid gland and oversecretion of PTH even if the primary cause is eliminated. Most individuals are asymptomatic, though late-stage, symptomatic disease may present with kidney stones, bone fractures, abdominal pain, and change in mental status. Diagnosis is based on biochemical parameters, which include serum PTH, calcium, and phosphate levels as well as urinary calcium. Management relies mostly on surgical parathyroidectomy for primary and tertiary hyperparathyroidism. Management of secondary hyperparathyroidism is focused on treatment of the underlying disease.

Hyperparathyroidism is a condition associated with elevated blood levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Depending on the pathogenesis of this condition, hyperparathyroidism can be defined as primary, secondary or tertiary. Primary hyperparathyroidism is an inherent disease of parathyroid glands associated with abnormal secretion of PTH. Secondary hyperparathyroidism results from abnormalities of calcium metabolism, which, if left untreated, can progress to tertiary hyperparathyroidism, which is associated with hypertrophy of the parathyroid gland and oversecretion of PTH even if the primary cause is eliminated. Diagnosis is based on biochemical parameters, which include serum PTH, calcium, and phosphate levels as well as urinary calcium. Management relies mostly on surgical parathyroidectomy for primary and tertiary hyperparathyroidism. Management of secondary hyperparathyroidism is focused on treatment of the underlying disease.

Hypercalcemia (serum calcium > 10.5 mg/dL) can result from various conditions, the majority of which are due to hyperparathyroidism and malignancy. Other causes include disorders leading to vitamin D elevation, granulomatous diseases, and the use of certain pharmacological agents. Calcium levels are regulated and affected by factors such as dietary intake and pH, and the levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and albumin. Symptoms vary depending on calcium levels and the onset of hypercalcemia. Generally, neuropsychiatric (confusion, altered mental status), GI (vomiting, abdominal pain), musculoskeletal (bone pain, weakness), and renal (polyuria, polydipsia) manifestations are seen. Confirmation of hypercalcemia is required. Correction of the value is based on the albumin levels or after determining the ionized calcium levels (the metabolically active form), which is followed by determining PTH levels. Subsequent laboratory tests and imaging studies are ordered based on history and presentation. Correction of hypercalcemia depends on its severity. Calcium levels > 14 mg/dL are treated using IV isotonic saline hydration, calcitonin, and bisphosphonates. Hemodialysis is considered in rare cases. Treatment of the underlying cause is recommended.

Calcimimetics are medications that mimic the action of calcium on tissues, particularly in the parathyroid gland. By activating calcium-sensing receptors, calcimimetics inhibit the release of parathyroid hormone. Due to this mechanism, this drug class is mainly indicated for management of hyperparathyroidism. Adverse effects include hypocalcemia, GI symptoms, adynamic bone disease, and QT prolongation. Cinacalcet is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) system, which results in several drug interactions.

Hormones are messenger molecules that are synthesized in one part of the body and move through the bloodstream to exert specific regulatory effects on another part of the body. Hormones play critical roles in coordinating cellular activities throughout the body in response to the constant changes in both the internal and external environments. The work of hormones allows the body to maintain homeostasis and regulate growth and development. Hormones are typically either made from amino acids or derived from cholesterol (the latter group being known as steroid hormones). Hormones exert their effects by binding to receptors either on the cell surface (most amino acid–based hormones) or within the cytosol (steroid hormones). Ultimately, binding to receptors triggers changes in gene expression or enzymatic activity within the cell.

Multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes are autosomal dominant inherited conditions characterized by 2 or more hormone-producing tumors involving the endocrine organs. There are different types of MEN, namely MEN1–4. The MEN1 syndrome is associated with MEN1 gene mutation and has a predilection for primary hyperparathyroidism, pituitary adenomas, and pancreatic tumors (the 3 P’s). Due to the RET proto-oncogene mutation, MEN2 syndrome can be further categorized as MEN2A and MEN2B. Medullary thyroid carcinoma and pheochromocytoma are common features. The MEN2A variant is associated with primary hyperparathyroidism, whereas MEN2B (also considered MEN3) is associated with neuromas and Marfanoid habitus. The newer and rare entity, MEN4, has features of MEN1 but results from CDKN1B mutations. The diagnosis is clinical, and tumors are detected based on imaging and correlating hormone levels. Genetic testing plays a crucial role in MEN2 syndromes in determining further management. Treatment is dependent on the tumors that are present and genetic mutation.