Neuroradiology

An ischemic stroke (also known as cerebrovascular accident) is an acute neurologic injury that occurs as a result of brain ischemia; this condition may be due to cerebral blood vessel occlusion by thrombosis or embolism, or rarely due to systemic hypoperfusion. The clinical presentation includes neurologic symptoms with varying degrees of motor and sensory loss corresponding to the area of the brain that is affected and the extent of tissue damage. Diagnosis is made by physical examination and imaging. Management is ideally with thrombolytic therapy to restore blood flow, depending on the time frame and clinical situation. Long-term rehabilitation with physical, occupational, and speech therapies is important after the acute event.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a type of cerebrovascular accident (stroke) resulting from intracranial hemorrhage into the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and the pia mater layers of the meninges surrounding the brain. Most SAHs originate from a saccular aneurysm in the circle of Willis but may also occur as a result of trauma, uncontrolled hypertension, vasculitis, anticoagulant use, or stimulant use. The most classic symptom is a sudden-onset (thunderclap) headache along with neck stiffness, vomiting, a decreased level of consciousness, and seizure. As with any stroke, focal neurologic deficits are commonly present, and rapid neurologic deterioration may ensue without prompt diagnosis and intervention. An SAH should be suspected in any person presenting with thunderclap headache and neurologic symptoms, and the diagnosis can be confirmed with neuroimaging or lumbar puncture (LP). Treatment consists of reversal of anticoagulation, control of blood pressure, and neurosurgical intervention to contain the bleed and/or relieve elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). Even with prompt neurosurgical intervention, SAH carries a high mortality rate.

Subdural hemorrhage (SDH) is bleeding into the space between the dural and arachnoid meningeal layers surrounding the brain. The most common mechanism triggering the bleeding event is trauma (e.g., closed head injury) causing a tearing injury to the extracerebral “bridging” veins, but rupture of small arteries within this space or intracranial hypotension may also be causative. Acute SDH presents, immediately following head trauma, with an altered level of consciousness that may span from a momentary loss of consciousness to coma, which makes it a potentially life-threatening condition. Chronic SDH may also occur, presenting with a more gradual neurologic deterioration. Diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion following head trauma and confirmed with neuroimaging (e.g., noncontrast head CT). Management includes stabilization, stopping (possibly reversing) all anticoagulants, monitoring in a neurologic ICU, and neurosurgical intervention.

Epidural hemorrhage (EDH) is an event characterized by bleeding into the epidural space between the dural layers of the meninges and the skull. The primary mechanism triggering bleeding is trauma (i.e., closed head injury), which causes arterial injury, most commonly middle meningeal artery injury. Epidural hemorrhage presents acutely, usually immediately (seconds to hours) following head trauma, with an altered level of consciousness that may span from a momentary loss of consciousness to coma. Diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion following head trauma and is confirmed with neuroimaging (i.e., noncontrast head CT). Management includes stabilization, stopping (possibly, the reversal) of all anticoagulants, monitoring in a neurologic ICU, and neurosurgical intervention.

Spinal cord injuries are complex injuries that involve damage to the neural tissue within the spinal canal. Spinal cord injuries are commonly the result of trauma. Clinical presentation varies depending on the site of injury and on whether the injury is complete or incomplete. Diagnosis is by clinical exam and imaging. Management is 2-fold, with immediate supportive care and stabilization of spine followed by long-term rehabilitation with physiotherapy and treatment of complications. Spinal cord injuries are associated with multisystem complications.

Spinal disk herniation (also known as herniated nucleus pulposus) describes the expulsion of the nucleus pulposus through a perforation in the annulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disk. Spinal disk herniation is an important pain syndrome with the potential for neurologic impairment and is most commonly caused by degenerative disk disease. Clinical presentation depends on the presence or absence of spinal cord or nerve root compression and the downstream neurologic sequelae (e.g., radicular pain, muscle weakness, sensory deficit, reflex deficit). Diagnosis is initially clinical and can be confirmed with diagnostic imaging (e.g., MRI). Management can range from conservative to surgical, depending on the situation.

The spinal cord is the major conduction pathway connecting the brain to the body; it is part of the CNS. The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions, though because the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column, these regions do not line up with their corresponding vertebral levels. In cross section, the spinal cord is divided into an H-shaped area of gray matter (consisting of synapsing neuronal cell bodies) and a surrounding area of white matter (consisting of ascending and descending tracts of myelinated axons). Like the brain, the spinal cord is surrounded by 3 layers of connective tissue, collectively known as the meninges; these layers are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The spinal cord is supplied by 1 anterior and 2 posterior spinal arteries.

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) refers to a spontaneous or traumatic bleed into the brain parenchyma and is the 2nd-most common cause of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs), commonly known as stroke, after ischemic CVAs. Trauma, hypertension, vasculopathy, vascular malformations, tumors, coagulopathy, and hemorrhagic conversion of ischemic stroke may all be causative factors. Clinical presentation may vary depending on the size and location of the hemorrhage and may range from headache, neurologic signs and symptoms, and altered level of consciousness to coma. Treatment includes stabilization, stopping or reversing of anticoagulation, blood pressure control, monitoring in a neurologic ICU, and possible neurosurgical intervention. Intracerebral hemorrhage is associated with significant morbidity and mortality.

Epidural hemorrhage (EDH) is an event characterized by bleeding into the epidural space between the dural layers of the meninges and the skull. The primary mechanism triggering bleeding is trauma (i.e., closed head injury), which causes arterial injury, most commonly middle meningeal artery injury. Epidural hemorrhage presents acutely, usually immediately (seconds to hours) following head trauma, with an altered level of consciousness that may span from a momentary loss of consciousness to coma. Diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion following head trauma and is confirmed with neuroimaging (i.e., noncontrast head CT). Management includes stabilization, stopping (possibly, the reversal) of all anticoagulants, monitoring in a neurologic ICU, and neurosurgical intervention.

Subdural hemorrhage (SDH) is bleeding into the space between the dural and arachnoid meningeal layers surrounding the brain. The most common mechanism triggering the bleeding event is trauma (e.g., closed head injury) causing a tearing injury to the extracerebral “bridging” veins, but rupture of small arteries within this space or intracranial hypotension may also be causative. Acute SDH presents, immediately following head trauma, with an altered level of consciousness that may span from a momentary loss of consciousness to coma, which makes it a potentially life-threatening condition. Chronic SDH may also occur, presenting with a more gradual neurologic deterioration. Diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion following head trauma and confirmed with neuroimaging (e.g., noncontrast head CT). Management includes stabilization, stopping (possibly reversing) all anticoagulants, monitoring in a neurologic ICU, and neurosurgical intervention.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a type of cerebrovascular accident (stroke) resulting from intracranial hemorrhage into the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and the pia mater layers of the meninges surrounding the brain. Most SAHs originate from a saccular aneurysm in the circle of Willis but may also occur as a result of trauma, uncontrolled hypertension, vasculitis, anticoagulant use, or stimulant use. The most classic symptom is a sudden-onset (thunderclap) headache along with neck stiffness, vomiting, a decreased level of consciousness, and seizure. As with any stroke, focal neurologic deficits are commonly present, and rapid neurologic deterioration may ensue without prompt diagnosis and intervention. An SAH should be suspected in any person presenting with thunderclap headache and neurologic symptoms, and the diagnosis can be confirmed with neuroimaging or lumbar puncture (LP). Treatment consists of reversal of anticoagulation, control of blood pressure, and neurosurgical intervention to contain the bleed and/or relieve elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). Even with prompt neurosurgical intervention, SAH carries a high mortality rate.

Magnetic resonance imaging is a technique that utilizes magnetic fields and radiofrequency pulses to produce highly detailed images of the human anatomy. Magnetic resonance imaging can detect minute changes, reliably delineate lesions, and characterize vascular malformations. Soft tissues, such as abnormalities affecting non-bony structures, can be evaluated using MRI. Images can be obtained in most planes (commonly used are sagittal, coronal, and axial). Contrary to CT, MRI does not expose patients to ionizing radiation. There are some limitations of this imaging modality: MRI is expensive, time consuming, and not readily available in some centers. Additionally, patients with ferromagnetic implants or devices cannot be exposed to the MRI equipment, which has magnets. Contrast studies may result in renal complications; thus, the determination of renal function is necessary before using certain contrast agents.

The vertebral column is the most important anatomical and functional axis of the body, consisting of 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar vertebrae and limited cranially by the skull and caudally by the sacrum. The vertebral column provides structural support and protection for the spinal cord, which is housed in the spinal canal. The vertebral column and the spinal cord may be affected by various diseases, in which different imaging methods are important for correct diagnosis and management. Radiographs and CT scans are useful in evaluating bony structures, especially in excluding fractures and checking hardware. Additionally, CT scans also provide information on soft tissues. MRI is performed for evaluation of tumors, infection, disk herniations, and other soft tissue abnormalities including acute ligamentous or spinal cord injury.

Imaging of the brain is most commonly used for evaluating trauma, stroke, and benign or malignant tumors. Before the advent of CT and MRI, X-ray scanning was widely used to study the skull and spinal bones. Today, CT and MRI, especially the latter, are the preferred imaging methods for the study of the cranial vault and its contents. In conditions where emergent management is decided on the basis of presentation and imaging, CT has the advantage of rapid scan time and wider availability. CT also has good sensitivity and specificity and relatively lower cost. MRI though, provides better parenchymal characterization especially in cases where initial findings are negative on CT (such as in acute ischemia).

An ischemic stroke (also known as cerebrovascular accident) is an acute neurologic injury that occurs as a result of brain ischemia; this condition may be due to cerebral blood vessel occlusion by thrombosis or embolism, or rarely due to systemic hypoperfusion. The clinical presentation includes neurologic symptoms with varying degrees of motor and sensory loss corresponding to the area of the brain that is affected and the extent of tissue damage. Diagnosis is made by physical examination and imaging. Management is ideally with thrombolytic therapy to restore blood flow, depending on the time frame and clinical situation. Long-term rehabilitation with physical, occupational, and speech therapies is important after the acute event.

Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the triad of gait abnormalities, dementia, and urinary urgency or incontinence. Normal pressure hydrocephalus can be either idiopathic or secondary to intraventricular or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Symptoms may be similar to those of Alzheimer and Parkinson's diseases. Diagnosis of NPH is clinical, in addition to lumbar puncture testing and neuroimaging. Management is with surgical shunt placement to drain excess CSF from the cerebral ventricles.

Head trauma occurs when external forces are directed to the skull and brain structures, resulting in damage to the skull, brain, and intracranial structures. Head injuries can be classified as open (penetrating) or closed (blunt), and primary (from the initial trauma) or secondary (indirect brain injury), and range from mild to severe and life-threatening. The majority of cases are mild, but presentation can vary from a mild concussion to a comatose state depending on the severity of the insult. Management ranges from observation to intensive care monitoring and neurosurgical interventions. Prognosis is good for mild injuries, but severe trauma can result in death or permanent damage.

Hydrocephalus is a potentially life-threatening condition caused by the excess accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the ventricular system. Hydrocephalus can be classified as communicating, which is caused by either impaired CSF absorption or excess CSF production; or non-communicating, which is caused by a structural blockage in CSF flow. The causes of hydrocephalus can be congenital or acquired. The clinical presentation is often nonspecific with symptoms including headache, behavioral changes, developmental delays, or nausea and vomiting. If the hydrocephalus is congenital or acquired at a young age, infants often present with macrocephaly. Diagnosis is confirmed with neuroimaging (ultrasound, computed tomography of the head, or magnetic resonance imaging) showing ventriculomegaly. Treatment is most commonly surgical with the placement of a CSF shunt.