Encephalitis (Inflammation of the Brain) – Top USMLE Diseases

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by an infection, usually viral. Encephalitis may present with mild symptoms such as headache, fever, fatigue, and muscle and joint pain or with severe symptoms such as seizures, altered consciousness, and paralysis. The diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion, and once suspected, immediate empiric treatment is warranted to prevent catastrophic and long-term neurologic sequelae. Encephalitis is managed with supportive measures and antiviral therapy. Focal neurologic defects are common after encephalitis; hence, physiotherapy is usually required.

Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes of the brain, and spinal cord. The causes of meningitis are varied, with the most common being bacterial or viral infection. The classic presentation of meningitis is a triad of fever, altered mental status, and nuchal rigidity. Diagnosis of meningitis is made on clinical grounds with a thorough neurologic examination. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool, as it is difficult to identify the exact cause clinically. Management of meningitis includes immediate broad-spectrum antibiotics and supportive therapy to prevent complications. Specific treatment depends on the etiology of meningitis. Delay in treatment can lead to permanent neurologic defects and death.

Brain abscess is a life-threatening condition that involves the collection of pus in the brain parenchyma caused by infection from bacteria, fungi, parasites, or protozoa. The most common presentation is headache, fever with chills, seizures, and neurological deficits. Diagnosis is mainly based on imaging, as it is difficult to arrive at a definitive diagnosis based on clinical presentation alone. Management includes administration of empiric antibiotic therapy and surgical intervention. Immediate management is necessary; otherwise, severe neurologic complications ensue.

Listeria spp. are motile, flagellated, gram-positive, facultative intracellular bacilli. The major pathogenic species is Listeria monocytogenes. Listeria are part of the normal gastrointestinal flora of domestic mammals and poultry and are transmitted to humans through the ingestion of contaminated food, especially unpasteurized dairy products. Listeria can also infect the fetus in utero or neonates during vaginal birth. Healthy individuals exposed to L. monocytogenes usually do not become ill if the inoculum is small, or may develop only self-limiting gastroenteritis. Immunocompromised or elderly individuals, neonates, and pregnant women can develop invasive disease, including meningitis and bacteremia. Treatment of invasive listeriosis includes ampicillin and gentamicin.

Brain abscess is a life-threatening condition that involves the collection of pus in the brain parenchyma caused by infection from bacteria, fungi, parasites, or protozoa. The most common presentation is headache, fever with chills, seizures, and neurological deficits. Diagnosis is mainly based on imaging, as it is difficult to arrive at a definitive diagnosis based on clinical presentation alone. Management includes administration of empiric antibiotic therapy and surgical intervention. Immediate management is necessary; otherwise, severe neurologic complications ensue.

Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes of the brain, and spinal cord. The causes of meningitis are varied, with the most common being bacterial or viral infection. The classic presentation of meningitis is a triad of fever, altered mental status, and nuchal rigidity. Diagnosis of meningitis is made on clinical grounds with a thorough neurologic examination. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool, as it is difficult to identify the exact cause clinically. Management of meningitis includes immediate broad-spectrum antibiotics and supportive therapy to prevent complications. Specific treatment depends on the etiology of meningitis. Delay in treatment can lead to permanent neurologic defects and death.

Equine encephalitis viruses (EEVs), belonging to the Togaviridae family and Alphavirus genus, are mosquito-borne arboviruses that infect humans and cause minor illness or, in severe cases, encephalitis. The eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus complex consists of the EEE virus, found in North America and the Caribbean; and the Madariaga virus, found in South and Central America. Other viruses in this complex include western EEV and Venezuelan EEV. The virus is maintained in a cycle between mosquitoes and avian hosts, but can spread to humans via bridge vectors (other species of mosquitoes). Initial symptoms after the mosquito bite include fever, headache, and vomiting. A majority of patients recover, but the illness can progress to severe encephalitis. Diagnosis is by clinical findings and CSF analysis using serology, and also by virus antigen or genomic sequence detection. There is no specific treatment, and therapy is largely supportive. Prevention of mosquito bites is key in management.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus. Transmission occurs primarily via Ixodes ticks found in Europe, the former Soviet Union, and Asia. The virus causes tick-borne encephalitis. Most patients are asymptomatic; however, symptomatic individuals may experience a biphasic illness. After recovering from nonspecific symptoms, patients can develop neurologic manifestations, such as meningitis, encephalitis, or meningoencephalitis. Serology or PCR can confirm the diagnosis. There is no effective antiviral therapy for TBEV infections, so management is supportive.

The Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is a member of the genus Flavivirus and is the cause of St. Louis encephalitis. This small, enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus is transmitted by Culex mosquito species and is prevalent in the United States. Most infections are asymptomatic. Symptomatic individuals may have varied presentations, with flu-like symptoms, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, or meningoencephalitis. The diagnosis is confirmed with serology. There is no effective antiviral treatment, so management is supportive. Prevention is aimed at local mosquito control and personal protection with insect repellent and protective clothing.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the family Herpesviridae. Herpes simplex virus commonly causes recurrent infections involving the skin and mucosal surfaces, including the mouth, lips, eyes, and genitals. Typical mucocutaneous infections are characterized by an acute localized appearance of clusters of small, painful vesicles on an erythematous base. Although overlap exists, HSV-1 is classically associated with oropharyngeal lesions, whereas HSV-2 is mostly responsible for genital herpes, an STI. Systemic and severe infections including encephalitis, meningitis, and neonatal herpes may also occur. The diagnosis is made based on clinical presentation and history, which can be confirmed by the microscopic examination of a stained smear of a fresh vesicle, nucleic amplification test using PCR, direct immunofluorescence, or serologic tests. The therapy for mucocutaneous lesions is usually symptomatic, but antiviral therapies involving acyclovir, valacyclovir, or famciclovir are useful if given early, and are always part of the therapy for serious systemic infections.

Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic, fungal infection caused by the Cryptococcus species. The principal pathogens in humans are C. neoformans (primary) and C. gattii. Cryptococcus neoformans is typically found in pigeon droppings and acquired by inhaling dust from contaminated soil. The majority of affected patients are immunocompromised. Patients with AIDS, chronic steroid use, and organ transplant are particularly affected. The primary virulence factor is an antiphagocytic capsule, consisting of repeating capsular polysaccharide antigens. The infection typically affects the lungs and presents as a primary lesion or pneumonia. Dissemination can occur to involve the brain and meninges, skin, bones, and visceral organs. Treatment for cryptococcal meningitis is usually amphotericin B and flucytosine, followed by fluconazole. Cryptococcosis is an AIDS-defining illness and typically associated with CD4 count < 100 cells/μL.

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by an infection, usually viral. Encephalitis may present with mild symptoms such as headache, fever, fatigue, and muscle and joint pain or with severe symptoms such as seizures, altered consciousness, and paralysis. The diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion, and once suspected, immediate empiric treatment is warranted to prevent catastrophic and long-term neurologic sequelae. Encephalitis is managed with supportive measures and antiviral therapy. Focal neurologic defects are common after encephalitis, and hence, physiotherapy is usually required.